مجله پژوهش های حبوبات ایران
سال ششم شماره 2 (پیاپی 12، پاییز و زمستان 1394)

Despite the fact that Iran is one of the major chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) center of origins, limited information is available regarding chickpea genetic variation and diversity. Genetic diversity information is crucial for the choice of proper parents to establish new breeding programs. Chickpea germplasm is poor, suggesting the need for gaining enough knowledge of genetic diversity among available chickpea genotypes. A number of molecular techniques have been developed to unveil the genetic potentials of plant materials. Random Amplified Polymorpic DNA (RAPD) seems to be a reliable molecular marker to investigate the genetic diversity of chickpea genotypes in IRAN. The objectives of present research was: (1) to investigate the power of RAPD markers for estimation of genetic diversity among chickpea genotypes in west of Iran, (2) to investigate the genetic relationships between chickpea genotypes, and (3) to determine whether chickpea genotypes could be distinguished by RAPD marker data.
Random amplified polymorphic DNA markers (RAPD) were used to assess the genetic relationship between 18 different chickpea genotypes representing the cultivated chickpea cultivars in west of Iran. Genomic DNA was isolated according to Murray & Thompson (1980). Eighteen oligonucleotide primers were selected according to the number of literature published with the highest number of polymorphic bands. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out in a total volume of 25 μl including 2 units of Taq DNA polymerase, 30 ng of genomic DNA template, 10 pmol of primers, 0.2 mM of dNTPs, and 2.5 μl of 10 × reaction buffer. DNA amplifications were performed in a thermocycler. The thermal profile was as follow: One time denaturation at 94◦C (5 min), followed by 40 cycles of denaturation at 94◦C (3 min), annealing at each primer proper Tm (1 min) and extension at 72◦C (2 min) and one time final extension at 72◦C (5 min). PCR products were analyzed on 1.5 % agarose gels in TBE buffer running at 100 V for 2h. The gels were stained using ethidium bromide and visualized with UV light. The reproducibility of the DNA band patterns was evaluated duplicate gel electrophoresis analysis. Only clear and repeatedly amplified RAPD DNA bands were scored as (1) for present bands and (0) for absent ones.
Out of 18 random RAPD primers used in this study, 17 primers amplified genomic DNA across all the genotypes. In total, 201 polymorphic bands (96.63%) out of 208 reproducibly scoreable RAPD markers were generated (OPM-05 primer did not produce any band). On average, 12.2 bands per primer were observed in RAPD analysis. Cluster analysis using Dice coefficient of similarity and UPGMA (r=0.98) method based on polymorphic fragments, grouped all eighteen genotypes into 6 groups with 77% accuracy. Based on dendrogram obtained, Bivanij (Landrace genotype) showed the least similarity with the 6th cluster. Although there was no redundancy among the genotypes tested, the majority of genotypes were clustered together. ICARDA genotypes may have been improved from an Iranian landrace.
Genetic diversity among chickpea cultivars using RAPD markers have been studied by a number of researchers. Although in most cases a low level of polymorphism with RAPD markers have been reported, this study showed a considerable amount of polymorphism. Furthermore, our results showed that cultivated chickpea cultivars in west of Iran have many genes in common. We recommend further studies to be conducted by using more number of chickpea genotypes as well as more robust molecular markers. Results of this study can be used in germplasm management/conservation practices, developing core collections and as guidance to plant geneticist and breeders for planning future explorations, and crop improvement purposes. These findings may help to avoid genetic vulnerability and erosion, keeping chickpea genetic diversity and germplasm.

In recent years due to problems associated with intensive agricultural systems, the role of legumes in the sustainability of cropping systems has been accelerated (Draper, 2006). Currently, one of the challenges of energy intensive agricultural systems is monoculture, which is associated with low biological diversity (Carmine, 2007). Iran has been considered as the area with low agricultural diversity and dominance of few crops particularly cereals in the main cropping systems (Nassiri Mahallati et al., 2003). The most common index of plant diversity is the SHANNON index. In agroecosystems, a Shannon index of 3 is rare (Meng et al., 1999). Researchers evaluated agrobiodiversity of agricultural systems at species, variety and cropping systems in a comprehensive survey for Iran and they found that the diversity at all levels have been declining due to introduction of new agricultural technology (Koocheki et al., 2005). They found that for wheat and rice which are the main cereal crops with high variety richness the SHANNON index ranges from 1.5 to 1.7. The aim of present study was to evaluate biodiversity of pulse crops in Iran and the future trends of yield, acreage and production.
In this survey, the status of pulse crops in different provinces of the country from 1983 to 2003 was evaluated. These crops were bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and lentil (Lense culinaris). Other species of this category were classified as other pulse crops. The SHANNON index (H) was calculated based on the cultivated area (Smale et al., 2003): For evaluating of the trends in biodiversity, cultivated area, production and yield, time series were used by the following formula: Yt = f (t) et (1)
Where, Yt is the variable at the time of t, f(t) is a function which describes Y on the bases of time and et is the prediction error of the time of t. Prediction of trend was calculated by direct method (Patchet, 1982) and the first year of data was considered as starting point. In this study, based on the type of time series, double dynamic mean and WINTERS method were used for the future prediction. In the WINTERS method, prediction is made on the bases of harmonized mean from time series data, in such a way that the highest weight is given to the nearest data and the weight of data is decreased with aversions from the present time.
The diversity index under rainfed condition showed an increasing trend whereas the reverse is true for the diversity index under irrigated condition. The diversity index for the whole pulse crops (rainfed plus irrigated) was inconsistent, but an increasing trend was observed from 1983 to 2003 and a decreasing trend was observed afterwards. The decreasing trend was also true for the prediction towards the year 2021. Similar trend as for the period 1983 to 2003 is expected up to the year 2021.
The acreage and yield for irrigated has been increased for bean, whereas for chickpea, the rainfed acreage has been increased. The lentil was similar to chickpea. The acreage of the other pulse crops showed a slightly increasing trend from 1983 to 2003. This rise is due, in part, to an increase in the irrigated acreage. This trend is likely to increase slightly over the coming years and is likely it will show a consistent trend afterwards. The yield of other pulse crops decreased from 1983 to 2003. This reduction is due to a reduction under rainfed conditions. The yield of other pulse will decreased until 2021.
The same trend is shown for production. Although production of bean has shown an increase, this increase is mainly due to an increase under irrigated condition, whereas the rise in lentil and chickpea is due to rainfed production. The same trend is expected up to the year 2021 for these crops. The production of the other pulse crops showed a slight decreasing trend from 1983 to 2003. This decreasing is due to a decreasing under irrigated and rainfed conditions. The trend will show increase for a few time and it will show a consistent trend afterwards.
Only the yield for bean has an increasing trend and this is associated with this fact that bean has been under irrigated conditions. No increase is shown for other crops which are produced under rainfed condition. Therefore, it may be concluded that the production increase for bean is mainly due to yield and acreage increase, whereas for other pulse crops, the production increase is due to increasing in the acreage, because the yield showed somewhat the decreasing trend during these years. Prediction of diversity index of rainfed pulse crops up to the year 2021 indicates an increase of 1.22 folds compared to the year 2003. However diversity index for irrigated and irrigated plus rainfed showed a reduction of 0.88 and 0.9 folds, respectively. The magnitude of the change of production, yield and acreage for different pulse crops is shown. It is apparent that the prediction of production for the bean up to the year 2021, under rainfed, irrigated and rainfed plus irrigated will be increased by 2.96, 1.60 and 1.95 folds compared with the year 2003. These values for the yield of bean under similar conditions are 1.59, 1.03 and 1.22 folds, respectively and also for the acreage will be 1.88, 1.58 and 1.59 folds, respectively.
Acreage for the chickpea and lentil for rainfed, irrigated and irrigated plus rainfed will be 2.47, 0.37, 2.41 and 2.63, 1.31, 2.54 folds, respectively. These values for other pulse crops will be 4.96, 1.49 and 2.01 folds, respectively. An increasing trend of the yield has been reported for the future for different crops (Khush, 1999; Rosegrant et al., 2001). Borlog (2000) has stated that yield growth which is associated with genetic improvement and the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation systems, will be continued, in the future.
We can predict that the rate of acreage and production of pulse crops in Iran, specially three important crops, bean, chickpea and lentil will increase until 2021. However, under rainfed conditions, it is likely that the yields, particularly of chickpea and lentil will stabilize.
This study was conducted to evaluate the trends in biodiversity, cultivated area, production and yield of pulse crops in different provinces of Iran from 1983 to 2003. Time series formula was used for such evaluation. The diversity indices studied under irrigated and rainfed conditions. It seems the results can be useful for policy makers, scientists and food industry to improve food security in country.

Lentil is one of the major legume with protein content about 28% where is cultivated in different regions of Iran, especially in arid and semi-arid regions with low or variable rainfall. In these regions abiotic stresses such as heat of the around the end of growing season, drought stress in early and late within the season and salt stress alone or together have a large negative impact on germination, emergence, seedling growth and ultimately yield. Germination and seedling establishment are sensitive and crucial stages in the life cycle of plants, and determine density, uniformity as well as final yield of the crops. On the one hand, optimal germination and plant establishment and also planting depth due to the significant effect on seedling emergence and plant establishment is very important. So, selecting appropriate treatments with the combination of time and suitable planting depth are necessary for successful crop production. Seed priming as one of the strategy for increasing the rate and percentage of the germination, increasing in quality of seedling productivity, plant suitable establishment and increasing crop yield in the area is favorable.
This experiment was conducted in the form of factorial based on completely randomized block design in three replications in the research greenhouse of Gonbad Kavous University, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources in November of 2013. Factors included salicylic acid pretreatment in four concentrations (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg/kg) and various planting depths in five levels (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 cm). In the present experiment, lentil seeds before planting were kept in the solution of salicylic acid hormone for 6 hours at room temperature and then they were removed from solution and dried on paper towels for 24 hr at room temperature. Then 30 primed lentil seeds of Kimia cultivar were planted in pots with 20 cm diameter and 30 cm height. Soil of the pots was prepared from research field of Gonbad Kavous University. The physicochemical characteristics of the soil included loam silt texture, pH 7.9, 13.4 mg/kg resorb able phosphorus, 68% carbon, 0.07 total nitrogen, 356 mg/kg resorb able potassium. Then some of the emergence traits such as rate, percentage and seed vigor as well as some morpho-physiological traits such as seedling dry weight, shoot length, number of primary branches, leaf area, leaf area ratio, specific leaf area, leaf weight ratio, chlorophyll Index and proline content were measured 60 days after planting.
Results showed that whole study traits except leaf weight ratio were affected by various priming and planting depths. The treatment of 100 mg/Kg salicylic acid in 2.5 cm planting depth increased traits such as percentage of emergence (98.89), emergence rate (1.80 seedlings per day), seedling dry weight (1.13 g), leaf area (70.64 cm2), number of primary branches (4.7), leaf dry weight (0.69 g) and chlorophyll index (2.13). While proline content, leaf area ratio and specific leaf area decreased. It was also observed that priming treatment with 150 mg/kg salicylic acid increased proline content and shoot length, while leaf area and seedling dry weight inversely decreased. In this study, the treatment of 100 mg/kg of salicylic acid 2.5 cm of planting depth due to additive effects on the most of the traits was suitable treatment. Salicylic acid treatments increased lentil emergence, while proline content decreased using various concentrations of study treatment. It may be due to some physiological and morphological changes resulting from them. Under rainfed conditions, cultivation depth is more considerable. It may be prevented from seed germination, seed emergence and subsequent growth. Seed priming to reduce the risk of poor establishment is useful in a wide range of environmental conditions. Results of this experiment also showed that priming is a simple and useful method to enhance the rate and percentage of the emergence of lentil. The beneficial effects of priming can cause optimal seedling establishment, creating a uniform density and increasing of legumes yield which are important food. The results showed that priming with 50 mg/kg of salicylic acid had a weak effect on emergence and growth traits of lentil over higher concentrations. However, priming with 150 mg/kg salicylic had a negative effect on the studied traits. In other words, the effects are not ideal. Under normal conditions by increasing cultivation depth the emergence and vegetative lentil traits had a declining trend. However, the trend in plant depth of 2.5 to 7.5 cm was less sensitive; but in the more than 7.5 cm of plant depth, the mentioned traits were influenced considerably.
In the present experiment the most effective and ideal combination treatment was 100 mg/kg of salicylic acid in low cultivation depth especially in 2.5 cm. Therefore, the study treatment had an additive effect on most of the measured traits.

Determining the proper time for planting under different climate depends on the factors such as rainfall, temperature and length of day which are the most important aspects of crop production. Its importance is because of the severity of these effects on different genotypes to achieve potential production. Because different genotypes respond differently to planting delays. Sowing date usually interacts with other agricultural management. The goal of this study is to find the perfect time to plant so that environmental factors occurring be favorable for germination, seedling establishment and maintenance of the plant and as far as possible, the plant is faced with a decent condition at any stage of growth. In general, higher growth and higher performance is linked to early sowing date.Appropriate integration of crops and varieties are desirable in order to achieve maximum performance. In general, due to the potential capacity for bean cultivation in the Khuzestan region and lack of adequate information concerning the proper sowing date in the area, this research focuses on the effect of delayed sowing dates on physiological features of bean cultivars (Vicia faba L.) in Khuzestan.
The experiment was conducted in 2013-2014 at the Research Center of Agriculture and Natural Resources University of Ramin in Khuzestan. The region located on 31 degrees 36 minutes north and 48 degrees 53 minutes east, and with a height of 20 meters above sea level and is considered as arid and semi-arid areas. The average rainfall is 169 mm. The experiment was conducted as split-plot arrangement based on randomized complete block design with four replications. Treatments included five sowing dates as the main factor (October 10, October 25, November 10, November 25 and December 10) and two Faba bean varieties (Hystal and Saraziry) was considered as sub plots. To determine the functional components, 10 plants were randomly marked out of each plot and yield components including grains per pod, number of pods per plant and hundred grain weight were measured.
The results showed that all features apart from the number of grain per pod were significantly influenced by sowing dates. Also, the two varieties showed significant differences in terms of the number of grain per pod, number of pods per plant, grain weight and grain nitrogen. Significant differences were found through the interaction of treatments for the features of grain yield, cell membrane stability and chlorophyll-b. The highest grain yield was obtained by second and third sowing date, with an average of 3979.3 and 3849.4 kg per hectare respectively, and the lowest yield was shown at the fifth planting date (1806.2 kg per hectare).
It can be deduced from the results that the sowing dates October 25 and December 10 seem more productive in features like grain weight, number of pods per plant, grain yield and chlorophyll due to the better adaption to climate conditions. Meanwhile, late sowing date caused to decrease the number of pods per plant, grain weight, grain yield, relative water content, cell membrane stability and chlorophyll. Comparing different types of bean revealed that Hystal cultivar had better yield with the highest number of grain per pod, grain weight, and a grain per yield of 4345.7 kg/ha. In general, present study showed that the best planting date is November 10 for Hystal cultivar, and October 25 for Saraziry.

Dehydration is one of the limiting factors of crop production. It results from increasing the amount of water losses from leaf or inadequate water absorption rate or combination of both. Zinc used in many enzymes of the plant tissues and have catalytic role in activation of some enzymes. Zinc is involved in the synthesis and degradation of proteins and is an essential micronutrient for normal growth and reproduction of crops. It plays an important role in the synthesis of protein and carbohydrates, metabolic functions of the cell membrane to protect cells against free radicals of oxygen and other processes related to the plants adaptation to stress. Osmotic adjustment is one of the most important mechanisms of drought tolerance in plants. By this mechanism the osmotic potential of plant cells reduces by solute accumulation. Torgur potential maintains high which is essential in cell development and growth.
Effect of water deficit stress and foliar application of zinc on physiological characteristics of chickpea was studied at a factorial experiment using randomized complete block design in field crop research station of University of Mohaghegh Ardabili in 2012. Irrigation schedules consisted of three levels (1: irrigation at planting, 2 : planting before flowering and 3 : planting before flowering pod set) and zinc was applied on three concentration (0, 3 and 6 kg ha-1 as zinc sulfate) in two stages of 15 and 25 days after planting. In this study Proline, Lysine, Methionine, soluble sugars, and protein content were measured in three stages 33, 55 and 75 day after stress induction and osmotic potential in 75 days after stress. Osmotic potential was measured based on the electrical conductivity, the extraction of soluble sugars by using phenol sulfuric method, total protein from the leaves by the Bradford method and Lysine and methionine assayed using Ferrel method. Data were analyzed using the SAS and means compared by the LSD at the 5% level.
The results showed that dehydration increased proline, lysine, methionine, protein and soluble sugar content but reduced the osmotic potential. The maximum amount of proline accumulation resulted in two and three stage samplings once irrigation and its minimum rate obtained in the three irrigation schedule. It seems that by reducing soil moisture availability or increasing irrigation intervals, the water potential of the cells has been reached to the lower threshold which enhanced the protease enzyme activity resulted in proline accumulation in order to enhance water absorption. The maximum amount of lysine during 55 and 75 days after the stress obtained from one irrigation. Unlike the lysine, methionine content reduced during stress period, so that it's maximum value was obtained over 55 and 75 days after the tension of 3 times irrigation. Dehydration reduced the amount of proteins so that the maximum amount of protein production observed with three irrigations. Spraying six kg ha-1 zinc sulphate also enhanced the amount of proline, soluble sugar and osmotic potential but had no effect on the amount of lysine and methionine. Correlation showed that by increasing the time from withholding irrigation by 33 days proline increased, but osmotic potential affected only after 75 days. The regression results also showed that in the early stages of sampling, proline content had the significant effect on the biomass prediction but the elapsed time increased the effect of lysine, methionine and protein on predicting the osmotic potential.
In general it can be said increasing the secondary metabolites production can reduce the stress and proline is the most sensitive to the low level of stress, but under higher levels of stress many metabolites such as lysine and methionine were also used for osmoregulation. The regression results also showed that in the early stages of sampling, proline levels had the largest effect on the biomass prediction, but with increasing time the lysine, methionine and protein levels also predicted the osmotic potential.

Intercropping as a common method in sustainable agricultural systems, plays an important role in increasing productivity and yield stability to improve utilization of resources )Alizadeh et al., 2010). Studies in different countries showed that intercropping causes increase in diversity, production and more efficient use of water resources, land, labor and nutrients and also reduces problems caused by pests, diseases and weeds (Awal et al., 2006) and improves environmental conditions for plant growth )Alizadeh et al., 2010). One the most important benefits of intercropping is increasing production per unit area compared with sole cropping (Banik et al., 2006(.The reason for increasing the yield in the intercropping is the better use of environmental factors such as water, nutrient and light )Alizadeh et al., 2010). TohidiNejad et al, (2004) evaluated the intercropping of corn (Zeamayz) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus( and reported that intercropping, due to more efficient use of light, improved the yield of both plants. Pouramir et al, (2010) investigated the intercropping of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and concluded that yield of chickpea was significantly affected by intercropping with sesame and the highest yield of chickpea was obtained in monoculture. Beheshti (Beheshti et al., 2010) evaluated the intercropping of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and soybean (Glaycin max) and stated that in all the intercropping treatments, land equivalent ratio was increased. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of mixed and row intercropping on yield of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).
Matrials and In order to study the effects of mixed and row intercropping of sesame and bean on yield and yield components in two species of sesame and bean, a split-plot experiment based on randomized complete blocks design with three replicates was performed in research farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2011-2012. Cropping pattern (mixed or row intercropping) was allocated to the main plots and different planting ratios (25% bean % sesame, 25% sesame % bean, 50% sesame % bean, sole cropping of sesame, sole cropping of bean) were assigned to the sub-plots. Density of planting for sesame and beans were 40 and 20 plants per square meters respectively.
Crop combination in row intercropping was as follows: 75% sesame 25% bean: planting three rows of sesame and one row of bean.
25% sesame 75% bean: planting three rows of bean and one row of sesame.
50% sesame and 50% bean: planting two rows of sesame and two rows of beans.
Indices such as Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), Aggressively index (AG) and Relative Crowding Coefficient index (RCC) were used (Vandermeer, 1989). For analyzing data, SAS ver.9.1 was used and mean comparison was performed based on Duncan test and for drawing charts Excel was used.
Results indicated that yield and yield components of sesame and bean were affected by different treatments. In all cases, row intercropping showed superior compared with mixed intercropping. The highest sesame yield (3128.93 kg/ha) was obtained with 50% sesame and 50% bean treatment and the highest bean yield (1087.76 kg/ha) was obtained with sole cropping. The highest amount of LER (land equivalent ratio) (1.59) was obtained with 50% sesame and 50% bean. LER values in all different treatments of multiple cropping were more than 1 and this shows superiority of multiple cropping compared with sole cropping of sesame and bean. This can be caused by biological nitrogen fixing by bean (Tavasoli et al., 2010). The highest value of Relative Crowding Coefficient (RCC) (2.19) was obtained with the50% sesame and 50% bean treatment. Based on Aggressively index (AG), bean was the dominant species.
Bean (as a nitrogen-fixing species) and sesame (as an oil crop) are different groups of plants with various functions. The presence of these two species in the intercropping increased diversity and optimal yield was obtained when the appropriate ratio (Balance between inter specific and intra specific competition) was used.

Evapotranspiration is one of the most important elements of hydrological cycle which is required for water resource management and design of irrigation systems. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) can be measured by the Lysimeter using water balance equation. It also can be estimated by multiplying reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and crop coefficient (Kc). Considering the importance of this parameter, numerous studies have been performed to determine the Kc of major crops in each region. Lentil is one of the legumes which is cultivated mainly in Lorestan province. Although this crop is the second in terms of the area under cultivation among the legumes in the country, the water requirement and crop coefficients of this crop is not determined in Lorestan province yet. The main purpose of the current study is to determinate lentil water requirement and its Kc in Khorram Abad.
A lysimetric experiment was conducted during the lentil growth season in 2013 at the research farm of agricultural faculty, Khorram Abad, Lorestan University. The farm is located in a cold semi-arid climate. Physical and chemical properties of the soil in the lysimeters were determined in the laboratory. The average of soil moisture content in the lysimeter at the field capacity and permanent wilting point was determined as 34.4 and 24.8 volumetric percentage respectively. In this study, lentil (Gachsaran cultivar) and grass were cultivated each on four micro drainable lysimeter with the diameter of 48 cm and height of 80 cm. Maximum allowable depletion (MAD) of soil moisture was considered as 30% to ensure that crops are not faced with water stress. Length of the crop growth stages (initial, development, mid-season and late-season) was determined by daily observation of the field and measuring crop canopy. Lentil and grass evapotranspiration was determined using water balance method. The evapotranspiration from grass was considered as reference evapotranspiration (ETo). The measured values of ETo and lentil evapotranspiration was compared with the calculated values by CROPWAT, REF-ET and AGWAT (Basis of national document of water) packages. Crop coefficient (Kc) was calculated as the ratio of lentil evapotranspiration over ETo. Average of Kc for each stage was also calculated and compared with literature.
The average of reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) was increasing thorough the growth period of lentil from 3.7 to 8.6 mm.day-1. This was due to increasing of sunshine hours and air temperature during that period. Total amount of lentil and grass evapotranspiration during the growing period of lentil was determined as 476 and 568 mm respectively. Total amount of calculated ETo in this period by CROPWAT, REF-ET and AGWAT packages was 551, 566 and 340 mm respectively. Results indicated that calculated values of ETo by CROPWAT and REF-ET is almost equals to measured ETo. However, AGWAT also uses Penman-Monteith equation but its results were far from the measured values of ETo because of differences in weather data. Results also indicated that lentil evapotranspiration was low at the initial stage, increased during the development stage and decreased during the late season. The maximum crop evapotranspiration of 88.46 mm per decade was measured at the period of 16-25 May 2013. Measured lentil evapotranspiration in the current study was higher than values calculated by AGWAT software package for this region. Lengths of initial, development, mid-season and late-season stages were determined as 19, 20, 33 and 24 days respectively. The average of lentil crop coefficient for initial, development, mid-season and late-season stages was calculated as 0.45, 0.89, 1.19 and 0.56 respectively. Calculated Kc values in this study were compared with the values of Kc in FAO 56 report and AGWAT. Calculated Kc at initial and mid stages (0.45 and 1.19 respectively) were close to values reported in FAO 56 (0.4 and 1.1 respectively) but far from AGWAT (0.15 and 1.05 respectively). In general, calculated crop coefficients in the current study were higher than the values presented in FAO 56 and AGWAT package software. Measured values of lentil evapotranspiration were higher than values reported in AGWAT. The reason was underestimation of ETO by AGWAT and lower values of Kc for lentil.
As there was no measurement of lentil evapotranspiration and crop coefficient, the results of current study can be used as a base for further studies about this issue in the region. Comparison of measured values of ETo and lentil crop evapotranspiration with the values calculated by AGWAT package indicated the under estimation of both parameters by AGWAT. However, it is recommended to do more studies on this subject but the results of current study can be used to determine lentil evapotranspiration instead of values reported in AGWAT and national documents of water for Lorestan province.

Water availability is an important factor affecting plant growth and yield, mainly in arid and semi-arid regions, where plants are often subjected to periods of drought. The occurrence of morphological and physiological responses, which can lead to some adaptation to drought stress, may vary considerably among species. In arid and semi-arid areas that are subjected to more irregular rainfall distribution and occurrence of long summer, the use of more rustic cultivars, tolerant to water stress and with greater ability to recover from drought, should be recommended. The plant tolerance to water deficit is an important defense to keep the production process in conditions of low water availability. Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is an important crop largely grown in warm and hot regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas and is often regarded as being well-adapted to high temperatures and drought compared with other crop species (Ehlers and Hall,1997). Drought adaptation in cowpea has been related to the minimization of water losses by the control of stomatal aperture. Turk et al. (1980) showed that cowpea is highly sensitive to water stress during the flowering and pod-filling stages. Ahmed & Suliman (1980) showed that the reproductive stage of development is the most sensitive to water deficit in cowpea, causing a reduction in water-use efficiencies and seed yields of at least 50%. In contrast, the genotypes showed a better ability to recover from stress at vegetative stage. This research aims to study the effect of drought stress in the end of the growing season on grain yield and its components of cowpea genotypes and was conducted to identify correlations between grain yield, different morphological characteristics and yield components.
In order to evaluate the effect of terminal drought stress on yield and yield components of 31 cowpea genotypes an experiment was conducted in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications in normal irrigation (non- stress) and drought stress (from flowering stage until the end of the growing season) at research field of Tehran University in Karaj during 2011-2012 growing season. Each plot consisted of two rows with two m length and 50 cm row spacing and 5 cm for plant spacing on lines with planting depth of approximately 5 cm. Each genotype in the two lines was planted manually. For the water stress from flowering stage until the end of the growing season, irrigation was terminated. In this experiment plant height, number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, seed 100 weight, biological yield per plant and grain yield per plant were measured., Randomized complete block design was performed for simple analysis of variance and the combined analysis was performed for analysis of variance in two experiments (under drought stress and non-stress conditions).
The results showed that values of many of the traits decreased under drought stress. The most damage due to drought stress related to the number pods per plant (34.27%), which was caused a sharp decline in the grain yield (32.5%). The analysis of simple variance examined the both situations (stress and non-stress), showed that in the study varieties, there was a significant difference for all the characteristics. The results of the compound analysis in the treatment indicated that there was a definite distinction in the genotypes and also environment of all traits. The counter effect of environment × genotype for the reaction of the number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and grain 100 weight traits was significant, which showed the different reactions of the genotypes in different environments. The comparison between the average traits proved that in both conditions, genotype number 6 showed the highest performance.
The results showed that under both irrigation regimes the biological yield and pod number per plant were highly correlated with grain yield which can be used to improve the performance of their direct selection. Understanding the importance of direct selection of genotypes for biological yield and number of pods per plant is recommended.

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the world’s most important food legume. This staple is considered as a nearly perfect food mainly because of its high protein content and abundant fiber, complex carbohydrates, and other daily food needs such as vitamins (folate) and minerals (Cu, Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn, Zn). Annual production, including both dry and snap bean, exceeds 21 million metric tons (MT), which represents more than half of the world’s total food legume production. A majority of the bean production occurs under low input agriculture on small-scale farms in developing countries. Beans produced by these resource-poor farmers are more vulnerable to attack by disease and insect pests and to abiotic stresses including drought and low soil fertility. Development of cultivars with improved resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses is a primary goal of bean breeding programs throughout the world. As much as 60% of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production in the developing world occurs under conditions of significant drought stress. Selecting drought tolerant genotypes, could be a viable option to cope with the limited available water for irrigation and increasing the productivity in such climates. Terminal drought is one of the main water limiting conditions that constrain common bean production because plants rely on the stored soil water during flowering and pod-filling periods, when usually water deficit intensifies.
To evaluate of the effects of late season water stress on phenological traits, grain yield, yield components, determination of phenotypic variation and evaluation of relationship between grain yield with other traits in 33 bean genotypes an experimental design was carried out using a randomized complete block design with three replications under two conditions (stress and non-stress) in 2012 in the experimental field of college of Agriculture and natural resources of Tehran University in Karaj Campus.
Results showed that among genotypes in study traits there were significant differences which reveal genetic variation among the genotypes. The highest and lowest grain yield in non-stress condition was in 28 and 12 number genotypes, respectively. The highest and lowest grain yield in stress condition was in 14 and 25 numbers of genotypes, respectively. The analysis of tolerance index correlation showed that indices of tolerance stress (STI), mean productivity (MP) and geometric mean productivity are the best indices for identifying genotypes with high yield in both conditions. According to the results of phenotypic correlations, stepwise regression, path analysis in both normal and stress conditions, it can be concluded that, the traits of biological yield, seed and pod weight, number of filled pods, number of seeds per plant, 100 seed weight and number of seed per pod were the most important and effective traits on yield. According to principal component analysis using seven agronomic traits in both conditions, two main components were selected that in total under non stress condition 72 percent and under water stress condition 76 percent of the total variation was explained and in both conditions, the first and second factors were introduced as yield and yield component factors.
In crops such as common bean, where seeds are the product of interest, the main criteria for selection of agronomical resistance to drought is focused on traits that lead to a higher grain production.
Followed by selection based on yield under stress, was suggested as the most effective strategy to improve drought resistance in common bean. It is suggested that selection under stress reveals that some of genotypes have resistant inherited genes, and are key to yield improvement of common bean.
Cultivars with improved stress resistance can reduce reliance on pesticides in high input systems, avert risk of yield loss from pests in low- and high-input systems, and enable more stable bean production across diverse and adverse environments (low precipitation, high humidity, etc.) and poor soil conditions (low fertility, hillsides, etc.).
This study reinforces the importance of characterizing drought resistant genotypes selected for particular drought types, to build a better picture of those mechanisms involved in drought resistance during specific plant developmental stages and to particular environments, knowledge that will contribute to define selection criteria for drought resistance in common bean that, after proper validation, could be used in improvement programs.

Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic stresses all around the world. The aim of breeding studies and breeding for resistance to drought is that breeders seek to identify varieties and genetic resources to drought resistant and comparison of drought resistance among the varieties and the introduction of superior varieties to farmers. Drought or imbalance between supply and demand for water is one of the most important limiting factors affecting crop production which is very important in this context, effective and economic use of water resources especially for areas with arid and semi-arid climatic conditions which covers about two-thirds of the total area of Iran (Shahram & Daneshi, 2005). Breeders have been trying that by testing different varieties under normal and stress conditions to identify varieties and use them to plant breeding programs.
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), a member of the family leguminous (Fabaceae) is a crop grown under the tropical and sub-tropical areas covering Africa, Asia, South America, and parts of Southern Europe and United States (Singh et al., 1997). Dry seeds of cowpea contain 20-25% protein, 1.8% fat, and 60.3% carbohydrate and are rich sources of iron and calcium (Majnoon Hoseini, 2008).
In this study, various drought tolerance indices were used to identify drought resistant in varieties. Indices included drought tolerance, Tolerance Index (TOL), Mean Productivity (MP), Geometric Mean Productivity (GMP), Stress Susceptibility Index (SSI), Yield Stability Index (YSI), Yield Index (YI), Stress Tolerance Index(STI), and Harmonic Mean (HM) (Ahmadi et al., 2000; Fernandez, 1992; Safari et al., 2007; Bouslama & Schapaugh,1984; Gavuzzi et al.,1997).
In order to study and determine the most effective traits, drought tolerance indices and identify tolerant genotypes in vegetative drought stress on the cowpea genotypes, All 32 cowpea genotypes were cultivated in a randomized complete block design with three replications which each replication consisted of 32 experimental units, each unit or plot, three lines with a length of two meters with line spacing of 70 cm were planted. The distance between rows of plants, 10 cm and 50 cm was considered the distance between each plot, in two separate experiments including normal irrigation and water stress conditions. The study was conducted at Experimental Research Farm, University of Tehran, Karaj Agricultural Research Institute at College of Agriculture and Natural Resources in Karaj, Tehran, Iran during 2014. Drought stress was imposed by doubling the irrigation time about 50 days after planting against normal irrigation on thirty-two cowpea genotypes. Evaluation of drought resistant in different genotypes was conducted using eight indices including Tolerance Index (TOL), Mean Productivity (MP), Geometric Mean Productivity (GMP), Stress Susceptibility Index (SSI), Yield Stability Index (YSI), Yield Index (YI), Stress Tolerance Index (STI), and Harmonic Mean (HM).
Analysis of variance showed that there is a significant difference between genotypes for all the indices of drought tolerance and grain yield in both normal and stress conditions (P0.01). This result suggested that the genetic variation among genotypes is capable of selection for drought tolerance.
A simple calculation of statistical parameters (mean and standard deviation) for drought tolerance indices indicated that there is a great diversity among the study genotypes which it can be used as rich genetic resources to help breeders to improve and identify resistant varieties.
The average yield of all genotypes under drought stress and normal irrigation condition was Ys = 83.57, and Yp =101.82, respectively. Significant differences between two different conditions indicated that cowpea plant has a high potential for tolerance under drought stress condition. TOL index revealed the lowest average value among various indices (TOL =18.24).
The low level of stress tolerance index shows a high relative tolerance genotype. In fact, stress tolerance index showed the changes of stress condition in genotypes. It means that genotypes with low TOL index indicate less changes and genotypes with high TOL index show more changes.
Correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between grain yield and drought tolerance indices. The STI, MP, HM and GMP indices which have the most positive and significant correlation with grain yield under stress and non-stress conditions were introduced as the best indices for screening tolerant genotypes to drought and high-yielding in both environmental conditions. Using Biplot scatter graph in 32 cowpea genotypes and according to genotypes situation in Biplot display, genotypes 998, 313, 291 and 7 were identified as tolerant genotypes with high-yield. Cluster analysis based on investigated indices and yield under drought stress and non-stress conditions showed that genotypes were grouped in four clusters and most of the drought tolerant genotypes with high yield were grouped in the second cluster¡ while most of drought sensitive genotypes were grouped in the fourth cluster.
In this study, genotypes showed high genetic diversity in terms of drought tolerance using drought tolerance indices. Based on the results obtained in this study genotypes 291, 7, 313, and the Mashhad cultivar (998) can be proposed as drought tolerant genotypes.

Bean is one of the most important legumes worldwide for direct human consumption and is a rich source of protein and carbohydrates. Bean is weak to compete with weed because of the retard growth at the early stages. Therefore, weed control at this time plays an important role to gain high priduction. Yield crop depends on weed number, and size after germination. Weed control depends on integration of prevalent methods application along with desirable agronomical operations. Selection of the best sowing method, plant density and application of chemical weed control methods plus weeding can effectively control weeds. It is shown that weed dry weight decreased in wet sowing method as compared with dry sowing. Using higher plant density increased the yield bean by 16% as compared to ordinary density. Application of Trifloralin at the rate of 2 lit/ha controlled weeds in bean field without any reduction for yield bean. This study tries to find the effects of irrigation before and after sowing and integrated management on yield, yield components and weed control of Chiti bean.
Field experiment was carried out as factorial split plot based on complete randomized block design with four replicates during 2011 at Shazand city in Markazi province, Iran (34˚ 3' N latitude; 49˚ 48' E longitude; altitude of 2010 m above sea level). The factors were two sowing methods (wet and dry sowing), three levels of plant density (12.5, 17 and 25 plant/m2) and three levels of methods of weed control (weed infest, twice hand weeding, and Trifloralin plus once hand weeding). Seeds of KS2189 genotype were sown by hand at rows spaced at 40 cm. Trifloralin was applied as soil-mixed pre-planting treatment at the rate of 2 lit/ha. The first and second weeding were done at 30 and 40 day after sowing, respectively. Sampling weeds were done 60 day after sowing. Agronomic traits were measured based on the mean of 15 plants/plot. At harvest, plants were removed from 3 m2 of the middle of each plot and the grain and biological yield were measured. The data were subjected to the analysis of variance using SAS. Means were compared using Duncan's Multiple Range test at P=0.05 level of significance.
Results showed that decreasing the plant density significantly increased the number of pods per plant. Application of Trifloralin plus once hand weeding caused to increase the number of pods per plant by 62% as compared to control. The interactive effect of sowing method and weed control treatment showed that the number of pods per plant was higher in weed control treatments than weed infest treatment for both wet and dry sowing. The maximum number of grains per pod was observed for plant density of 17 plant/m2. Wet sowing increased grain yield by 14% as compared to dry sowing. Previous studies showed that wet sowing can increase grain yield by 18%. It seems that high moisture content of soil make higher possibility of emergence and seedling establishment in wet sowing treatment that dry sowing. The shoot growth increased by increasing of photosynthesis and thus increased final grain yield. The maximum grain yield (4667.3 kg/ha) was observed in plots which were wet sown as method, in plant density of 17 plant/m2 and applied Trifloralin plus once hand weeding. In both sowing method, with decreasing of plant density weed density and biomass increased. The minimum of weed density (37.80 plants/m2) and buimass (96.96 g/m2) was obtained from wet sowing method and plant density of 25 plant/m2. Results showed that in both sowing method, the minimum weed density and biomass was obtained from application of Trifloralin plus once hand weeding. Comparison among treatment means showed that the maximum of weed biomass (711.92 g/m2) and total number (239.2 plants/m2) was obtained in dry sowing condition with plant density of 12.5 plant/m2 and weed infest treatment.
In general, the best integrated treatment to more suppression of weeds and to obtain optimum grain yield of chiti bean is using plant density of 17 plant/m2 on wet condition and applying of Trifloralin plus once hand weeding.

Weeds deprive the crop plants from limited available nutrients, space, light, and moisture. Hence, the physiological activities and growth of crops are negatively affected in the presence of weeds. Ultimately, poor crop productivity is the result of weed-crop competition. Allelopathy is primarily based on the ability of certain plant species to produce secondary chemical compounds, which exert some sorts of biological ef¬fects on other organisms (Waller, 2004). It is biochemical interaction between individuals and ecological communities systems. Allelopathic compounds are released into the soil through root exudation, leaching by dews and rains, volatilization and decaying different plant tissues in soil (Rice, 1984). The transport of allelochemicals to target weed species is facilitated by microorganisms. Allelochemicals also, promote the activities of soil microbes, which pose a positive effect on crop plants. In many cases, these compounds inhibit the germination or growth of neighboring plants (Ebana et al., 1981) and affect plant populations (Chase et al., 1991).
Sunflower contains water-soluble allelochemicals that inhibit the germination and growth of other species (Sadeghi et al., 2010), and could be used in weed management programs. Orooji et al. (2008) evaluated allelopathic potential of sunflower on redroot pigweed and common lambsquarter in the laboratory and greenhouse experiments. Ashrafi et al. (2008b) studied the allelopathic effects of sunflower on germination and growth of wild barley.
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the third most important legume worldwide. It is predominantly grown as a post-rainy season crop on conserved soil moisture and experiences progressive terminal drought stress with varying intensity. Chickpea is a weak competitor against weeds and availability of post–emergence herbicides particularly against broad-leaf weeds is limited (Solh & Palk, 1990).
In order to study the effect of sunflower residue levels on population, density, dry weight and diversity of weeds and yield components, biological yield and grain yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), an experiment was performed based on a randomized complete block design with four replications at the Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad during 2013. Treatments included application of zero, 625, 1250, 1875 and 2500 kg.ha-1 sunflower residues. Traits such as density, dry weight and Shannon-Wiener diversity index of weeds at two sampling stages, height of main stem, distance of first pod to soil surface, number of branches, pods and 100-seed weight, biological yield and grain yield of chickpea were measured.
The results indicated that 14 weed species belong to 10 families were observed at two sampling stages. Poaceae was the most dominant family amongst these. The effect of sunflower residue levels was significant (p≤0.01) on weed density and dry weight and Shannon-Wiener diversity index at two sampling stages. Increasing the residue level considerably declined the density and dry weight of weeds. At the first and second sampling stages, the lowest Shannon-Wiener index was recorded at 2500 kg sunflower residue ha-1 with 0.2 and 0.03, respectively. Moreover, growth characteristics, yield components and yield of chickpea were significantly affected by sunflower residue levels (p≤0.01). The maximum biological yield and grain yield were observed in 2500 kg.ha-1 sunflower residue with 237.9 and 97.2 kg.ha-1, respectively. It seems that the application of increased residue levels of sunflower through decreasing weed growth and improvement of soil characteristics has resulted in an enhanced growth and yield of chickpea. So, in order to achieve the principles of sustainable agriculture, the application of sunflower residues could be considered for weed control and yield enhancement of chickpea as an important and valuable legume.
Allelopathic crops express their allelopathic activity through exudation of allelochemicals. Growing allelopathic crop may become an important way to suppress weeds, especially So the use of allelopathic plant residues as mulches are important ways that can be practiced for economical, environment friendly weed management in agricultural systems. The allelopathic potential of crops is desired to be strengthened using conventional and modern plant breeding techniques.